Staff profile

I'm a social psychologist, best known for my work on social identity and intergroup relations, including research on understanding and reducing prejudice and stereotyping. My other research interests include sexism, immigration, social class, social exclusion, and mental health. I've also published metascientific work on issues connected with the replication crisis in science such as preregistration, multiple testing, significance testing, and hypothesising after the results are known (HARKing).

• prejudice
• discrimination
• social identity
• system justification
• immigration
• sexism
• social class
• mental health
• replication crisis
• metascience

• Google Scholar
• LindedIn
• Open Science Framework
• ResearchGate
• Twitter

Authored book

• Rubin, M., Evans, O. & McGuffog, R. (2019). Social class differences in social integration at university: Implications for academic outcomes and mental health. Springer International Publishing.
• Rubin, M., Hewstone, M., Crisp, R.J., Voci, A. & Richards, Z. (2003). Gender outgroup homogeneity: The roles of differential familiarity, gender differences, and group size. Psychology Press.

Journal Article

• Rubin, Mark, Owuamalam, Chuma Kevin, Spears, Russell & Caricati, Luca (2023). A social identity model of system attitudes (SIMSA): Multiple explanations of system justification by the disadvantaged that do not depend on a separate system justification motive. European Review of Social Psychology
• McGuffog, Romany, Rubin, Mark, Boyes, Mark, Caltabiano, Marie L., Collison, James, Lovell, Geoff P., Muldoon, Orla & Paolini, Stefania (2023). Sleep as a mediator of the relationship between social class and health in higher education students. British Journal of Psychology
• Rubin, Mark, Owuamalam, Chuma Kevin, Spears, Russell & Caricati, Luca (2023). Social identity explanations of system justification: Misconceptions, criticisms, and clarifications. European Review of Social Psychology
• Gendi, Monica, Rubin, Mark & Sanatkar, Samineh (2023). Understanding the relation between the need and ability to achieve closure: A single paper meta-analysis assessing subscale correlations. New Ideas in Psychology 69: 101007.
• Sanatkar, Samineh & Rubin, Mark (2023). An exploratory investigation of the reliability and validity of the Independent-Interdependent Problem-Solving Style Scale. International Journal of Psychology 58(1): 30-41.
• Owuamalam, Chuma K., Caricati, Luca, Spears, Russell, Rubin, Mark, Marinucci, Marco & Ferrari, Alessia (2023). Further evidence that system justification amongst the disadvantaged is positively related to superordinate group identification. Acta Psychologica 232: 103813.
• Owuamalam, Chuma Kevin, Tan, Chee Meng, Caricati, Luca, Rubin, Mark & Spears, Russell (2022). Cultural group norms for harmony explain the puzzling negative association between objective status and system justification in Asia. European Journal of Social Psychology
• Rubin, Mark & Donkin, Chris (2022). Exploratory hypothesis tests can be more compelling than confirmatory hypothesis tests. Philosophical Psychology
• Turner, Richard & Rubin, Mark (2022). Issues affecting mental health at a fly‐in‐fly‐out mine site: A subjective impact ratings approach. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 52(11): 1070-1080.
• Owuamalam, Chuma Kevin, Rubin, Mark & Spears, Russell (2022). Brexit and Trump: Which Theory of Social Stasis and Social Change Copes Best With the New Populism? Frontiers in Psychology 13: 797139.
• Rubin, Mark (2022). That's not a two‐sided test! It's two one‐sided tests! Significance 19(2): 50-53.
• Rubin, M. & Hutton, A. (2022). Binge Drinkers Shouldn’t Set Their Own Alcohol Reduction Goals! Evaluating the Effectiveness of Different Goal-Based Alcohol Reduction Interventions among Young People. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 40(3): 311-321.
• Evans, O. & Rubin, M. (2022). In a Class on Their Own: Investigating the Role of Social Integration in the Association Between Social Class and Mental Well-Being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 48(5): 690-703.
• Rubin, M. (2022). That's not a two-sided test! It's two one-sided tests! Significance 19(2): 50-53.
• Rubin, M. (2022). The Costs of HARKing. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 73(2): 535-560.
• Evans, O., McGuffog, R., Gendi, M. & Rubin, M. (2022). A First Class Measure: Evidence for a Comprehensive Social Class Scale in Higher Education Populations. Research in Higher Education
• Di Bernardo, G.A., Cocco, V.M., Paolini, S., Vezzali, L., Stathi, S., Rubin, M. & Subašić, E. (2021). Following the best of us to help them: Group member prototypicality and collective action. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations
• Hutton, A., Rubin, M., Sloand, E., Goodwin Veenema, T., Prichard, I., Gray, K.L. & Harper, S. (2021). Young People’s Voices Regarding the Use of Social Networking Sites to Plan for a Night Out Where Alcohol Is Involved. Comprehensive Child and Adolescent Nursing 44(3): 185-196.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Caricati, L., Rubin, M., Matos, A.S. & Spears, R. (2021). Why do women support socio-economic systems that favour men more? A registered test of system justification- and social identity-inspired hope explanations. European Journal of Social Psychology 51(7): 1073-1095.
• Zanon, C., Brenner, R.E., Baptista, M.N., Vogel, D.L., Rubin, M., Al-Darmaki, F.R., Gonçalves, M., Heath, P.J., Liao, H.-Y., Mackenzie, C.S., Topkaya, N., Wade, N.G. & Zlati, A. (2021). Examining the Dimensionality, Reliability, and Invariance of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale–21 (DASS-21) Across Eight Countries. Assessment 28(6): 1531-1544.
• Badu, E., Mitchell, R., O’Brien, A.P., Osei, A. & Rubin, M. (2021). Measuring Disability in Consumers of mental health services – psychometric properties of the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS 2.0) in Ghana. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 30(5): 1274-1288.
• Rubin, M. (2021). What type of Type I error? Contrasting the Neyman–Pearson and Fisherian approaches in the context of exact and direct replications. Synthese 198(6): 5809-5834.
• Rubin, M. (2021). When to adjust alpha during multiple testing: a consideration of disjunction, conjunction, and individual testing. Synthese 199(3-4): 10969-11000.
• Sanatkar, S., Heinsch, M., Baldwin, P.A., Rubin, M., Geddes, J., Hunt, S., Baker, A.L., Woodcock, K., Lewin, T.J., Brady, K., Deady, M., Thornton, L., Teesson, M. & Kay-Lambkin, F. (2021). Factors predicting trial engagement, treatment satisfaction, and health-related quality of life during a web-based treatment and social networking trial for binge drinking and depression in young adults: Secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. JMIR Mental Health 8(6).
• Paolini, S., Harwood, J., Logatchova, A., Rubin, M. & Mackiewicz, M. (2021). Emotions in Intergroup Contact: Incidental and Integral Emotions' Effects on Interethnic Bias Are Moderated by Emotion Applicability and Subjective Agency. Frontiers in Psychology 12.
• Rubin, M. (2020). “Repeated sampling from the same population?” A critique of Neyman and Pearson’s responses to Fisher. European Journal for Philosophy of Science 10(3).
• Wright, C.L. & Rubin, M. (2020). Sexualized Popular Music and Risky Sexual Behaviors Among Emerging Adults from the United States and Australia. Howard Journal of Communications 31(1): 1-19.
• Sanatkar, S. & Rubin, M. (2020). Openness to Experience Moderates the Association between Problem-Solving Style and Negative Affect. Journal of Individual Differences 41(4): 175-189.
• Hutton, A., Prichard, I., Whitehead, D., Thomas, S., Rubin, M., Sloand, E., Powell, T.W., Frisch, K., Newman, P. & Goodwin Veenema, T. (2020). mHealth Interventions to Reduce Alcohol Use in Young People: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Comprehensive Child and Adolescent Nursing 43(3): 171-202.
• Rubin, M., Giacomini, A., Allen, R., Turner, R. & Kelly, B. (2020). Identifying safety culture and safety climate variables that predict reported risk-taking among Australian coal miners: An exploratory longitudinal study. Safety Science 123.
• Brandt, M.J., Kuppens, T., Spears, R., Andrighetto, L., Autin, F., Babincak, P., Badea, C., Bae, J., Batruch, A., Becker, J.C., Bocian, K., Bodroža, B., Bourguignon, D., Bukowski, M., Butera, F., Butler, S.E., Chryssochoou, X., Conway, P., Crawford, J.T., Croizet, J.-C., de Lemus, S., Degner, J., Dragon, P., Durante, F., Easterbrook, M.J., Essien, I., Forgas, J.P., González, R., Graf, S., Halama, P., Han, G., Hong, R.Y., Houdek, P., Igou, E.R., Inbar, Y., Jetten, J., Jimenez Leal, W., Jiménez-Moya, G., Karunagharan, J.K., Kende, A., Korzh, M., Laham, S.M., Lammers, J., Lim, L., Manstead, A.S.R., Međedović, J., Melton, Z.J., Motyl, M., Ntani, S., Owuamalam, C.K., Peker, M., Platow, M.J., Prims, J.P., Reyna, C., Rubin, M., Saab, R., Sankaran, S., Shepherd, L., Sibley, C.G., Sobkow, A., Spruyt, B., Stroebaek, P., Sümer, N., Sweetman, J., Teixeira, C.P., Toma, C., Ujhelyi, A., van der Toorn, J., van Hiel, A., Vásquez-Echeverría, A., Vazquez, A., Vianello, M., Vranka, M., Yzerbyt, V. & Zimmerman, J.L. (2020). Subjective status and perceived legitimacy across countries. European Journal of Social Psychology 50(5): 921-942.
• Rubin, M. (2020). That's not a two-sided test! It's two one-sided tests! Significance 17(3): 38-41.
• Badu, E., O’Brien, A.P., Mitchell, R., Rubin, M., James, C., McNeil, K., Nguyen, K. & Giles, M. (2020). Workplace stress and resilience in the Australian nursing workforce: A comprehensive integrative review. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 29(1): 5-34.
• Douglas, H.E., Rubin, M., Scevak, J., Southgate, E., Macqueen, S. & Richardson, J.T.E. (2020). Older Women, Deeper Learning: Age and Gender Interact to Predict Learning Approach and Academic Achievement at University. Frontiers in Education 5.
• Graf, S., Paolini, S. & Rubin, M. (2020). Does intimacy counteract or amplify the detrimental effects of negative intergroup contact on attitudes? Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 23(2): 214-225.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M. & Spears, R. (2019). Revisiting 25 years of system motivation explanation for system justification from the perspective of social identity model of system attitudes. British Journal of Social Psychology 58(2): 362-381.
• Rubin, M., Paolini, S., Subašić, E. & Giacomini, A. (2019). A confirmatory study of the relations between workplace sexism, sense of belonging, mental health, and job satisfaction among women in male-dominated industries. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 49(5): 267-282.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M. & Spears, R. (2019). Is a system motive really necessary to explain the system justification effect? A response to Jost (2019) and Jost, Badaan, Goudarzi, Hoffarth, and Mogami (2019). British Journal of Social Psychology 58(2): 393-409.
• Nyoni, W., Pillay, M., Rubin, M. & Jefferies, M. (2019). Organizational factors, residual risk management and accident causation in the mining industry: A systematic literature review. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 791: 14-23.
• Rubin, M. (2018). Fear of self-annihilation and existential uncertainty as predictors of worldview defense: Comparing terror management and uncertainty theories. Journal of Social Psychology 158(3): 298-308.
• Rubin, M. & Stuart, R. (2018). Kill or cure? Different types of social class identification amplify and buffer the relation between social class and mental health. Journal of Social Psychology 158(2): 236-251.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M. & Spears, R. (2018). Addressing Evidential and Theoretical Inconsistencies in System-Justification Theory with a Social Identity Model of System Attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science 27(2): 91-96.
• Rubin, M., Scevak, J., Southgate, E., MacQueen, S., Williams, P. & Douglas, H. (2018). Older Women, Deeper Learning, and Greater Satisfaction at University: Age and Gender Predict University Students' Learning Approach and Degree Satisfaction. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 11(1): 82-96.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M. & Spears, R. (2018). A critical review of the (un)conscious basis for system-supporting attitudes of the disadvantaged. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 12(11).
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M., Spears, R. & Weerabangsa, M.M. (2017). Why Do People from Low-Status Groups Support Class Systems that Disadvantage Them? A Test of Two Mainstream Explanations in Malaysia and Australia. Journal of Social Issues 73(1): 80-98.
• Badea, C., Tavani, J.-L., Rubin, M. & Meyer, T. (2017). Self-affirmation, political value congruence, and support for refugees. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 47(7): 355-365.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Paolini, S. & Rubin, M. (2017). Socially creative appraisals of rejection bolster ethnic migrants' subjective well-being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 47(7): 366-376.
• Rubin, M. (2017). Towards a multiple motives meta-theory for social psychology. Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology 1(1): 15-20.
• Rubin, M., Badea, C., Condie, J., Mahfud, Y., Morrison, T. & Peker, M. (2017). Individual differences in collectivism predict city identification and city evaluation in Australian, French, and Turkish cities. Journal of Environmental Psychology 50: 9-16.
• Wright, C.L. & Rubin, M. (2017). “Get lucky!” Sexual content in music lyrics, videos and social media and sexual cognitions and risk among emerging adults in the USA and Australia. Sex Education 17(1): 41-56.
• Harwood, J., Joyce, N., Chen, C.-Y., Paolini, S., Xiang, J. & Rubin, M. (2017). Effects of Past and Present Intergroup Communication on Perceived Fit of an Outgroup Member and Desire for Future Intergroup Contact. Communication Research 44(4): 530-555.
• Rubin, M. & Wright, C.L. (2017). Time and money explain social class differences in students’ social integration at university. Studies in Higher Education 42(2): 315-330.
• Owuamalam, C.K. & Rubin, M. (2017). Fuming with rage! Do members of low status groups signal anger more than members of high status groups? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 58(5): 458-467.
• Evans, N.J., Rae, B., Bushmakin, M., Rubin, M. & Brown, S.D. (2017). Need for closure is associated with urgency in perceptual decision-making. Memory and Cognition 45(7): 1193-1205.
• Rubin, M. (2017). Do p values lose their meaning in exploratory analyses? It depends how you define the familywise error rate. Review of General Psychology 21(3): 269-275.
• Rubin, M. (2017). An evaluation of four solutions to the forking paths problem: Adjusted alpha, preregistration, sensitivity analyses, and abandoning the Neyman-Pearson approach. Review of General Psychology 21(4): 321-329.
• Rubin, M., Subasic, E., Giacomini, A. & Paolini, S. (2017). An exploratory study of the relations between women miners' gender-based workplace issues and their mental health and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 47(7): 400-411.
• Vogel, D.L., Strass, H.A., Heath, P.J., Al-Darmaki, F.R., Armstrong, P.I., Baptista, M.N., Brenner, R.E., Gonçalves, M., Lannin, D.G., Liao, H.-Y., Mackenzie, C.S., Mak, W.W.S., Rubin, M., Topkaya, N., Wade, N.G., Wang, Y.-F. & Zlati, A. (2017). Stigma of Seeking Psychological Services: Examining College Students Across Ten Countries/Regions. Counseling Psychologist 45(2): 170-192.
• Rubin, M. (2017). When does HARKing hurt? Identifying when different types of undisclosed post hoc hypothesizing harm scientific progress. Review of General Psychology 21(4): 308-320.
• Rubin, M., Evans, O. & Wilkinson, R.B. (2016). A longitudinal study of the relations among university students' subjective social status, social contact with university friends, and mental health and well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 35(9): 722-737.
• Morrison, T. & Rubin, M. (2016). Do utopian city designs from the social reform literature of the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries resonate with a modern audience? Journal of Architecture and Urbanism 40(1): 35-46.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Wong, K.X. & Rubin, M. (2016). Chubby but cheerful? Investigating the compensatory judgments of high, medium, and low status weight groups in Malaysia. Cogent Psychology 3(1).
• Owuamalam, C.K., Weerabangsa, M.M., Karunagharan, J.K. & Rubin, M. (2016). Chip on the shoulder? The hunchback heuristic predicts the attribution of anger to low status groups and calm to high status groups. Cogent Psychology 3(1).
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M. & Spears, R. (2016). The system justification conundrum: Re-examining the cognitive dissonance basis for system justification. Frontiers in Psychology 7(NOV).
• Madsen, K.R., Damsgaard, M.T., Rubin, M., Jervelund, S.S., Lasgaard, M., Walsh, S., Stevens, G.G.W.J.M. & Holstein, B.E. (2016). Loneliness and Ethnic Composition of the School Class: A Nationally Random Sample of Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 45(7): 1350-1365.
• Owuamalam, C.K., Rubin, M. & Issmer, C. (2016). Reactions to group devaluation and social inequality: A comparison of social identity and system justification predictions. Cogent Psychology 3(1).
• Rubin, M., Milanov, M. & Paolini, S. (2016). Uncovering the diverse cultural bases of social identity: Ingroup ties predict self-stereotyping among individualists but not among collectivists. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 19(3): 225-234.
• Rubin, M. & Kelly, B.M. (2015). A cross-sectional investigation of parenting style and friendship as mediators of the relation between social class and mental health in a university community. International Journal for Equity in Health 14(1).
• Rubin, M. & Wright, C.L. (2015). Age differences explain social class differences in students’ friendship at university: implications for transition and retention. Higher Education 70(3): 427-439.
• Zinko, R. & Rubin, M. (2015). Personal reputation and the organization. Journal of Management and Organization 21(2): 217-236.
• Paolini, S., Harwood, J., Rubin, M., Husnu, S., Joyce, N. & Hewstone, M. (2014). Positive and extensive intergroup contact in the past buffers against the disproportionate impact of negative contact in the present. European Journal of Social Psychology 44(6): 548-562.
• Graf, S., Paolini, S. & Rubin, M. (2014). Negative intergroup contact is more influential, but positive intergroup contact is more common: Assessing contact prominence and contact prevalence in five Central European countries. European Journal of Social Psychology 44(6): 536-547.
• Owuamalam, C.K. & Rubin, M. (2014). When do low status groups help high status groups? The moderating effects of ingroup identification, audience group membership, and perceived reputational benefit. Journal of Social and Political Psychology 2(1): 289-312.
• Rubin, M., Denson, N., Kilpatrick, S., Matthews, K.E., Stehlik, T. & Zyngier, D. (2014). "I am working-class": Subjective self-definition as a missing measure of social class and socioeconomic status in higher education research. Educational Researcher 43(4): 196-200.
• Rubin, M. & Paolini, S. (2014). Out-group flies in the in-group's ointment: Evidence of the Motivational Underpinnings of the In-Group Overexclusion Effect. Social Psychology 45(4): 265-273.
• Milanov, M., Rubin, M. & Paolini, S. (2014). Different types of ingroup identification: A comprehensive review, an integrative model, and implications for future research. Psicologia Sociale 9(3): 205-232.
• Rubin, M., Badea, C. & Jetten, J. (2014). Low status groups show in-group favoritism to compensate for their low status and compete for higher status. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 17(5): 563-576.
• Rubin, M. & Morrison, T. (2014). Individual differences in individualism and collectivism predict ratings of virtual cities liveability and environmental quality. Journal of General Psychology 141(4): 348-372.
• Rubin, M. (2013). " It wasn't my idea to come here!" Ownership of the idea to immigrate as a function of gender, age, and culture. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 37(4): 497-501.
• Rubin, Mark, Paolini, Stefania & Crisp, Richard J. (2013). Linguistic Description Moderates the Evaluations of Counterstereotypical People. Social Psychology 44(4): 289-298.
• Rubin, M. & Badea, C. (2012). They're All the Same! but for Several Different Reasons: A Review of the Multicausal Nature of Perceived Group Variability. Current Directions in Psychological Science 21(6): 367-372.
• Rubin, M. (2012). Social class differences in social integration among students in higher education: A meta-analysis and recommendations for future research. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 5(1): 22-38.
• Rubin, M. (2012). Group status is related to group prototypicality in the absence of social identity concerns. Journal of Social Psychology 152(3): 386-389.
• Rubin, M. (2012). Working-class students need more friends at university: A cautionary note for Australia's higher education equity initiative. Higher Education Research and Development 31(3): 431-433.
• Barlow, F.K., Paolini, S., Pedersen, A., Hornsey, M.J., Radke, H.R.M., Harwood, J., Rubin, M. & Sibley, C.G. (2012). The Contact Caveat: Negative Contact Predicts Increased Prejudice More Than Positive Contact Predicts Reduced Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38(12): 1629-1643.
• Rubin, M., Watt, S.E. & Ramelli, M. (2012). Immigrants' social integration as a function of approach-avoidance orientation and problem-solving style. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 36(4): 498-505.
• Badea, C., Brauer, M. & Rubin, M. (2012). The effects of winning and losing on perceived group variability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48(5): 1094-1099.
• Rubin, Mark, Paolini, Stefania & Crisp, Richard J. (2011). The relationship between the need for closure and deviant bias: An investigation of generality and process. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 46(3): PII 931812053, 206-213.
• Harwood, J., Paolini, S., Joyce, N., Rubin, M. & Arroyo, A. (2011). Secondary transfer effects from imagined contact: Group similarity affects the generalization gradient. British Journal of Social Psychology 50(1): 180-189.
• Rubin, M. (2011). Social affiliation cues prime help-seeking intentions. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 43(2): 138-141.
• Paolini, S., Harwood, J. & Rubin, M. (2010). Negative intergroup contact makes group memberships salient: Explaining why intergroup conflict endures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36(12): 1723-1738.
• Rubin, Mark, Paolini, Stefania & Crisp, Richard J. (2010). A processing fluency explanation of bias against migrants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 46(1): 21-28.
• Rubin, M. & Badea, C. (2010). The central tendency of a social group can affect ratings of its intragroup variability in the absence of social identity concerns. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46(2): 410-415.
• Voci, Alberto, Hewstone, Miles, Crisp, Richard J. & Rubin, Mark (2008). Majority, minority, and parity: Effects of gender and group size on perceived group variability. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY 71(2): 114-142.
• Rubin, M. & Badea, C. (2007). Why do people perceive ingroup homogeneity on ingroup traits and outgroup homogeneity on outgroup traits? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33(1): 31-42.
• Paolini, S., Hewstone, M., Rubin, M. & Pay, H. (2004). Increased group dispersion after exposure to one deviant group member: Testing Hamburger's model of member-to-group generalization. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40(5): 569-585.
• Rubin, M. & Hewstone, M. (2004). Social identity, system justification, and social dominance: Commentary on Reicher, Jost et al., and Sidanius et al. Political Psychology 25(6): 823-844.
• Hewstone, M., Rubin, M. & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology 53: 575-604.
• Crisp, RJ, Hewstone, M & Rubin, M (2001). Does multiple categorization reduce intergroup bias? PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 27(1): 76-89.
• Rubin, M., Hewstone, M. & Voci, A. (2001). Stretching the boundaries: Strategic perceptions of intragroup variability. European Journal of Social Psychology 31(4): 413-429.
• Rubin, M. & Hewstone, M. (1998). Social identity theory's self-esteem hypothesis: A review and some suggestions for clarification. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2(1): 40-62.